According to the ancient Greek and Roman philosophy known as Stoicism, the universe, despite appearances, is completely rational and controlled by orderly natural law, a reflection of the presence of divine reason. By conforming themselves to divine reason, individuals can find their proper place, learn to accept whatever happens with a strong and tranquil mind, and fulfill their obligations to society.
Stoicism was founded in Athens in about 300 bc by Zeno of Citium, Cyprus. Zeno gave his public lectures on the north side of the central marketplace, next to the Stoa Poikile (painted colonnade). From this location the philosophical school got its name.
Stoicism can be divided broadly into three periods: early (third century bc), middle (2nd and 1st centuries bc), and later (1st and 2nd centuries ad). The philosophy was expanded and reshaped by Zeno’s many Greek and Roman followers. Among them were Seneca, Epictetus, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius, all of whom produced valuable writings on the subject. Of special interest are Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations, private notebooks written during military campaigns.
The whole philosophy was fairly complex and included a complete cosmology (or view of the universe), physics, logic, ethics, psychology, and political theory. The ethics—that is, the principles governing the behavior of people in society—was the most prominent and appealing feature of the philosophy. By the time of Cicero in the 1st century bc, Stoicism had become the most widely diffused intellectual movement in the Roman Empire. It persisted as a powerful moral doctrine for centuries and influenced many of the early Christian writers. Stoic teachings can be found in the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza, René Descartes, and Immanuel Kant.
In the cosmology of the Stoics, God is the pervasive, absolute reason who gives energy and form to matter. This view is similar to pantheism, which sees God in all aspects of nature. All specific bodies—whether animal, mineral, or vegetable—are composed of a godly matter. The human mind is also a fragment of God contained in the individual. By living in harmony with nature, the mind is able to direct a person into a life guided by correct reason. Everything that happens in the world occurs according to fate, a result of the operation of divine and rational laws of nature. Just as everyone has a duty to live by reason, so everyone should learn to accept with courage and calm whatever circumstances the world brings.
According to Zeno, it is a mistake to regard health, wealth, success, or any other temporary condition as a cause for happiness. Only virtue is good, and vice is evil. The individual who pursues virtue can become wise. Virtue is defined as the attainment of courage, justice, and moderation. These are the ingredients of a good life and the only things that can provide true happiness. Zeno believed that the morally weak individual is unhappy no matter what good fortune the world brings. Money, wealth, and success can create a temporary psychological condition called happiness, but they cannot create real happiness—described as the good life well lived.
