Modern period, 1900–60
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In the early 20th century, popular poets responding to the interest in local colour depicted French Canadian customs and dialect (W.H. Drummond, The Habitant and Other French-Canadian Poems, 1897), the Mohawk tribe and rituals (E. Pauline Johnson, Legends of Vancouver, 1911; Flint and Feather, 1912), and the freedom and romance of the north (Robert Service, Songs of a Sourdough, 1907). John McCrae’s account of World War I, “In Flanders Fields” (1915), remains Canada’s best-known poem. Slowly a reaction against sentimental, patriotic, and derivative Victorian verse set in. E.J. Pratt created a distinctive style both in lyric poems of seabound Newfoundland life (Newfoundland Verse, 1923) and in the epic narratives The Titanic (1935), Brébeuf and His Brethren (1940), and Towards the Last Spike (1952), which through their reliance on accurate detail participate in the documentary tradition. Influenced by Pratt, Earle Birney, another innovative and experimental poet, published the frequently anthologized tragic narrative “David” (1942), the first of many audacious, technically varied poems exploring the troubling nature of humanity and the cosmos. His publications include the verse play Trial of a City and Other Verse (1952) and poetic collections such as Rag & Bone Shop (1971) and Ghost in the Wheels (1977).
Toronto’s Canadian Forum (founded in 1920), which Birney edited from 1936 to 1940, and Montreal’s McGill Fortnightly Review (1925–27) provided an outlet for the “new poetry” and the emergence of Modernism. Here and in their anthology New Provinces (1936), A.J.M. Smith, F.R. Scott, and A.M. Klein began their long literary careers. Emphasizing concrete images, open language, and free verse, these modernists felt that the poet’s task was to identify, name, and take possession of the land. Klein wrote in “Portrait of the Poet as Landscape” (1948) that the poet is “the nth Adam taking a green inventory / in a world but scarcely uttered, naming, praising.” The bonds of a colonial frame of mind characterized by fear of the unknown, reliance on convention, a puritan consciousness—what Frye, in the “Conclusion” written for the first edition of the Literary History of Canada (1965), called the “garrison mentality”—were being broken and cast off.
Strong reaction to the Great Depression, the rise of fascism, and World War II dominated the poems of the 1930s and ’40s. Using the documentary mode, Dorothy Livesay condemned the exploitation of workers in Day and Night (1944), while her lyric poems spoke frankly of sexual love (Signpost, 1932). In opposition to the cosmopolitan and metaphysical verse promoted by Smith and the literary magazine Preview (1942–45), Irving Layton, Louis Dudek, and Raymond Souster—through their little magazine Contact (1952–54) and their publishing house, the Contact Press (1952–67)—urged poets to focus on realism and the local North American context. P.K. Page, one of Canada’s most intellectually rigorous poets, was associated with the Preview group in the ’40s when she published her first collection, As Ten as Twenty (1946), which includes the evocative renowned poem “Stories of Snow.” Page’s later work increasingly reflected her interest in esoteric places, forms, and religions, from Sufism (Evening Dance of the Grey Flies, 1981) to the glosa, a Spanish poetic form (Hologram: A Book of Glosas, 1994).
By 1900 novels of local colour were beginning to overshadow historical romances. Lucy Maud Montgomery’s beloved children’s book Anne of Green Gables (1908) and its sequels were set in Prince Edward Island. Ontario towns and their “garrison mentality” provided the setting for Sara Jeannette Duncan’s portrayal of political life in The Imperialist (1904), Ralph Connor’s The Man from Glengarry (1901), Stephen Leacock’s satiric stories Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (1912), and Mazo de la Roche’s best-selling Jalna series (1927–60). Out of the Prairies emerged the novel of social realism, which documented the small, often narrow-minded farming communities pitted against an implacable nature. Martha Ostenso’s Wild Geese (1925), a tale of a strong young girl in thrall to her cruel father, and Frederick Philip Grove’s Settlers of the Marsh (1925) and Fruits of the Earth (1933), depicting man’s struggle for mastery of himself and his land, are moving testaments to the courage of farmers. Painter Emily Carr wrote stories about her childhood and her visits to First Nations sites in British Columbia (Klee Wyck, 1941).
A tentativeness in form and subject matter pervades the novels published during the 1940s and ’50s and is reflected in their protagonists, most of whom are sensitive, restless children or artists. In this category fall the Prairie novels As for Me and My House (1941) by Sinclair Ross, Who Has Seen the Wind (1947) by W.O. Mitchell, and The Mountain and the Valley (1952) by Ernest Buckler, set in Nova Scotia’s Annapolis valley. These novels strain the bonds of conventional narrative structures as they shift from social realism toward lyricism. In the panoramic Two Solitudes (1945) and The Watch That Ends the Night (1959), framed against the backdrop of the two world wars, Hugh MacLennan attempted to capture moral, social, and religious conflicts that rent individuals, families, and the French and English communities in Quebec. Sheila Watson’s enigmatic and mythic The Double Hook (1959) and Ethel Wilson’s Swamp Angel (1954), about a Vancouver housewife’s bid for personal freedom, present quest journeys against the striking backdrop of British Columbia’s interior. Elizabeth Smart’s incantatory novel By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept (1945) is a frank and poetic account of obsessive love.
1960 and beyond
Fiction
After the 1950s this tentativeness in fiction either became itself the subject of the novel or was dissipated in more confident forms of writing. Robertson Davies’ popular Deptford trilogy (Fifth Business, 1970; The Manticore, 1972; World of Wonders, 1975) examines the growth of its protagonists into maturity within a Jungian paradigm. Exploration of Canadian identity and of the world of art form much of the interest of Davies’ Cornish trilogy (The Rebel Angels, 1981; What’s Bred in the Bone, 1985; The Lyre of Orpheus, 1988) and Murther & Walking Spirits (1991). Alice Munro in Lives of Girls and Women (1971), set in southwestern Ontario, and Margaret Laurence in her Manawaka novels (The Stone Angel, 1964; A Jest of God, 1966; The Diviners, 1974) explored their heroines’ rebellion against a constricting small-town heritage. Munro’s short stories—in collections ranging from Dance of the Happy Shades (1968) to The View from Castle Rock (2006)—depict the domestic lives and relationships of women in Toronto, small-town Ontario, and British Columbia in an increasingly enigmatic style. Leonard Cohen’s Beautiful Losers (1966) probes the relationship between sainthood, violence, eroticism, and artistic creativity. Mavis Gallant’s stories depict isolated characters whose fragile worlds of illusion are shattered (The Selected Stories of Mavis Gallant, 1996). In her collection of stories Across the Bridge (1993), she probes the thin line between good and evil in the lives of ordinary people.
With trenchant irony, Margaret Atwood dissected contemporary urban life and sexual politics in The Edible Woman (1969), Lady Oracle (1976), and The Robber Bride (1993). Bodily Harm (1981), The Handmaid’s Tale (1985), and the speculative Oryx and Crake (2003) are cautionary tales of political violence and dystopia, while Alias Grace (1996) and The Blind Assassin (2000), winner of the Booker Prize, are situated in a meticulously researched historical Ontario and expose the secret worlds of women and the ambiguous nature of truth and justice. Set in Montreal, London, and Paris, Mordecai Richler’s novels The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1959), St. Urbain’s Horseman (1971), Joshua Then and Now (1980), Solomon Gursky Was Here (1989), and Barney’s Version (1997) satirize the condition and hypocrisy of modern society through black humour.
Many writers publishing in the 1960s and ’70s subverted the traditional conventions of fiction, shifting from realist to surrealist, self-reflexive, feminist, or parodic modes. Although historical events and the investigation of place as an imaginative source remained the most common subject matters, the narrative forms were experimental and playful. During the 1980s and ’90s, writers also renegotiated ideas of self and nation and of belonging and loss while breaking down traditional boundaries of both gender and genre. Robert Kroetsch’s trilogy The Words of My Roaring (1966), The Studhorse Man (1969), and Gone Indian (1973) transformed the realism of Prairie fiction into postmodern parodies of the quest journey. In The Temptations of Big Bear (1973), The Scorched-Wood People (1977), and A Discovery of Strangers (1994), Rudy Wiebe constructed fictional and spiritual epics based on historical events in the west and the precarious relations between First Nations and European explorers and settlers. In The Wars (1977), Timothy Findley’s narrator, through letters, clippings, and photographs, re-creates the effects of World War I on his hero. Famous Last Words (1981) and Not Wanted on the Voyage (1984), the latter a retelling of the voyage of Noah’s ark, are also historical metafictions that point to dangerous fascistic tendencies in the modern state.
George Bowering’s Burning Water (1980), which focuses on the 18th-century explorer George Vancouver, and Michael Ondaatje’s Coming Through Slaughter (1976), the story of the jazz musician Buddy Bolden, mingle history with autobiography in self-reflexive narratives that enact the process of writing. Ranging from 1920s Toronto (In the Skin of a Lion, 1987) to Italy during World War II (The English Patient, 1992; Booker Prize) and Sri Lanka wracked by civil war (Anil’s Ghost, 2000), Ondaatje’s lyrical, elliptical narratives spotlight a small coterie of people drawn together by a mystery that shapes the story and governs their lives.
Carol Shields’s novels, stories, and plays present the lives of ordinary women and men in a luminous, often gently satiric style. The Stone Diaries (1993), which won a Pulitzer Prize, begins in early 20th-century Manitoba and follows the life of Daisy from birth to death in a variety of voices and textual strategies, while in Unless (2002) a middle-aged professional woman confronts the nature of goodness and the disintegration of a comfortable family life. Audrey Thomas reveals the dilemmas confronting women in innovative short stories (Real Mothers [1981]) and novels (Intertidal Life, 1984; Graven Images, 1993; Isobel Gunn, 1999). Jack Hodgins maps a surreal island world in The Invention of the World (1977) and The Macken Charm (1995), mock-epics that both feature larger-than-life, eccentric characters and tell a colourful history of Vancouver Island. Fascinated by the imprint of the past on present lives, Jane Urquhart uses the symbol of the whirlpool to weave together stories of Canadians in 19th-century Ontario in The Whirlpool (1986); Away (1993), a lyrical saga, recounts in retrospect the life of a woman who emigrated from Ireland to Canada in the 1840s, and A Map of Glass (2005) depicts a reclusive heroine seeking answers to her lover’s disappearance. Traces of history also haunt Anne Michaels’s lyrical novel Fugitive Pieces (1996), in which the story of an émigré Polish poet in Toronto, rescued as a boy from the Nazis, intersects with that of a young professor, a child of Holocaust survivors. Daphne Marlatt radically revises family and colonial history, narrative, and sexuality in Ana Historic (1988) and Taken (1996). Douglas Glover’s Rabelaisian Elle (2003) chronicles the adventures of a young French woman marooned during Jacques Cartier’s 1541–42 voyage to Canada. Douglas Coupland spawned a new vocabulary with Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture (1991).
Although the subject of history exerts a powerful influence on all forms of Canadian writing, the tradition of regional fiction has not lost its momentum. David Adams Richards’s novels depict the bleakness of New Brunswick communities (Lives of Short Duration, 1981; Nights Below Station Street, 1988; Mercy Among the Children, 2000), while Guy Vanderhaeghe’s fiction has its roots in the Prairies (The Englishman’s Boy, 1996). In Clara Callan (2001), Richard B. Wright portrays quiet lives in small-town Ontario. Ann-Marie MacDonald’s Fall on Your Knees (1996) and Alistair MacLeod’s No Great Mischief (1999) recount family sagas set on Cape Breton Island. Wayne Johnston depicts Newfoundland’s history in The Colony of Unrequited Dreams (1998), a novel based on the life of Joey Smallwood, the province’s dynamic first premier. In River Thieves (2001), Michael Crummey describes the extinction of the Beothuk, an indigenous people of Newfoundland, and Lisa Moore’s Alligator (2005) dissects lives in contemporary St. John’s, the capital of Newfoundland and Labrador province.
During the 1980s and ’90s, increasing attention was also paid to the plurality and diversity of voices across the country. This period saw the emergence of numerous First Nations, Métis, and Inuit writers. Resisting the imposition of Western concepts of history, land, nation, society, and narrative, many of these writers explored their oral traditions, myths, and cultural practices. A recurring theme is the individual’s painful trajectory as that individual negotiates between cultures, combats racial prejudice, and copes with shattered families and kinship groups; these concerns are also rendered in playful or parodic modes, as protest literature, or as alternatives to frenetic urban consumer cultures. Works that engage these concerns include novels and stories by Jeannette Armstrong (Slash, 1985, rev. ed. 1988; Whispering in Shadows, 2000), Beatrice Culleton (In Search of April Raintree, 1983), Tomson Highway (Kiss of the Fur Queen, 1998), Thomas King (Medicine River, 1990; Green Grass, Running Water, 1993), and Eden Robinson (Monkey Beach, 1999; Blood Sports, 2006). Autobiography and memoir—Maria Campbell’s Half-Breed (1973) and Lee Maracle’s Bobbi Lee, Indian Rebel (1975, rev. ed. 1990), for example—are key genres in First Nations witnessing and testimony. These genres are also a part of the life writing (which also includes biography, biofiction, letters, and diaries) that dominates the field of Canadian literature and resonates with the tradition of documentary writing; examples include Ondaatje’s Running in the Family (1982), John Glassco’s Memoirs of Montparnasse (1970), Aritha van Herk’s Places Far from Ellesmere (1990), Wayson Choy’s Paper Shadows: A Chinatown Childhood (1999), Dionne Brand’s A Map to the Door of No Return (2001), and Wiebe and Yvonne Johnson’s Stolen Life: The Journey of a Cree Woman (1998).
Other perspectives tackle the experiences of immigrants—their interrogation of the meaning of home and belonging, their feelings of cultural assimilation and estrangement, and their intergenerational struggles. Nino Ricci, a Canadian of Italian descent, portrays the long journey from Italy to Canada in his trilogy Lives of the Saints (1990), In a Glass House (1993), and Where She Has Gone (1997). In her lyrical and meditative novels Plainsong (1993), The Mark of the Angel (1999), and Prodigy (2000), Nancy Huston, an expatriate in Paris, reflects on dislocation and exile. Yann Martel’s Life of Pi (2001), winner of the Booker Prize, depicts the fantastic voyage of 16-year-old Pi, who, en route to Canada from India, is shipwrecked and left adrift on the Pacific with several zoo animals.
Asian Canadian writing has emerged as a powerful and innovative force. Joy Kogawa’s Obasan (1981) is a skillful “docufiction” describing the internment of Japanese Canadians during World War II; in Chorus of Mushrooms (1994), Hiromi Goto examines the relations between three generations of women in rural Alberta. Chinese Canadian perspectives are presented in Choy’s The Jade Peony (1995), set in Vancouver’s Chinatown; Larissa Lai’s multilayered exploration of lesbian awakening, When Fox Is a Thousand (1995); and Sky Lee’s Disappearing Moon Café (1990). Rohinton Mistry’s Tales from Firozsha Baag (1987), Such a Long Journey (1991), A Fine Balance (1995), and Family Matters (2001) are set mostly in Bombay (now Mumbai) among the Parsi community, while Anita Rau Badami’s novels Tamarind Mem (1996) and The Hero’s Walk (2000) portray the cross-cultural effect on Indian families in India and Canada.
The poetry and fiction of George Elliott Clarke uncover the forgotten history of Canadian blacks, and Dionne Brand’s At the Full and Change of the Moon (1999) and Makeda Silvera’s The Heart Does Not Bend (2002) construct generational sagas of the African and Caribbean slave diaspora and immigrant life in Canada. Like Brand and Silvera, Shani Mootoo, whose Cereus Blooms at Night (1996) and He Drown She in the Sea (2005) unfold on a lush fictional Caribbean island, commemorates strong, disturbing matriarchal figures.