Sophocles’ life spanned almost the whole of the 5th century. He is said to have written his last play, Oedipus at Colonus, at age 90. Only seven of his plays, of some 125 attributed to him, survive. He won the prize in the tragic competitions 20 times and never placed lower than second.

Sophocles has been called the great mediating figure between Aeschylus and Euripides. Of the three, it might be said that Aeschylus tended to resolve tragic tensions into higher truth, to look beyond, or above, tragedy; that Euripides’ irony and bitterness led him the other way to fix on the disintegration of the individual; and that Sophocles, who is often called the “purest” artist of the three, was truest to the actual state of human experience. Unlike the others, Sophocles seems never to insinuate himself into his characters or situations, never to manipulate them into preconceived patterns. He sets them free on a course seemingly of their own choosing. He neither preaches nor rails. If life is hard and often destructive, the question Sophocles asks is not how did this come to be or why did such a misfortune have to happen but rather, given the circumstances, how must one conduct oneself, how should one act, and what must one do.

His greatest play, Oedipus the King, may serve as a model of his total dramatic achievement. Embodied in it, and suggested with extraordinary dramatic tact, are all the basic questions of tragedy, which are presented in such a way as almost to define the form itself. It is not surprising that Aristotle, a century later, analyzed it for his definition of tragedy in the Poetics. It is the nuclear Greek tragedy, setting the norm in a way that cannot be claimed for any other work, not even the Oresteia.

In Oedipus, as in Sophocles’ other plays, the chorus is much less prominent than in Aeschylus’s works. The action is swifter and more highly articulated; the dialogue is sharper, more staccato, and bears more of the meaning of the play. Though much has been made of the influence of fate on the action of the play, later critics emphasize the freedom with which Oedipus acts throughout. Even before the action of the play begins, the oracle’s prediction that Oedipus was doomed to kill his father and marry his mother had long since come true, though he did not realize it. Though he was fated, he was also free throughout the course of the play—free to make decision after decision, to carry out his freely purposed action to its completion. In him, Sophocles achieved one of the enduring definitions of the tragic hero—that of a man for whom the liberation of the self is a necessity. The action of the play, the purpose of which is to discover the murderer of Oedipus’s father and thereby to free the city from its curse, leads inevitably to Oedipus’s suffering—the loss of his wife, his kingdom, his sight. The messenger who reports Oedipus’s self-blinding might well have summarized the play with “All ills that there are names for, all are here.” And the chorus’s final summation deepens the note of despair: “Count no man happy,” they say in essence, “until he is dead.”

But these were not Sophocles’ ultimate verdicts. The action is so presented that the final impression is not of human helplessness at the hands of maligning gods nor of man as the pawn of fate. Steering his own course, with great courage, Oedipus has ferreted out the truth of his identity and administered his own punishment, and, in his suffering, learned a new humanity. The final impression of the Oedipus, far from being one of unmixed evil and nihilism, is of massive integrity, powerful will, and magnanimous acceptance of a horribly altered existence.

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Some 50 years later, Sophocles wrote a sequel to Oedipus the King. In Oedipus at Colonus, the old Oedipus, further schooled in suffering, is seen during his last day alive. He is still the same Oedipus in many ways: hot-tempered, hating his enemies, contentious. Though he admits his “pollution” in the murder of his father and the marriage to his mother, he denies that he had sinned, since he had done both deeds unwittingly. Throughout the play, the theme of which has been described as the “heroization” of Oedipus, he grows steadily in nobility and awesomeness. Finally, sensing the approach of the end, he leaves the scene, to be elevated in death to a demigod, as the messenger describes the miraculous event. In such manner Sophocles leads his tragedy toward an ultimate assertion of values. His position has been described as “heroic humanism,” as making a statement of belief in the human capacity to transcend evils, within and without, by means of the human condition itself.

Tragedy must maintain a balance between the higher optimisms of religion or philosophy, or any other beliefs that tend to explain away the enigmas and afflictions of existence, on the one hand, and the pessimism that would reject the whole human experiment as valueless and futile on the other. Thus the opposite of tragedy is not comedy but the literature of cynicism and despair, and the opposite of the tragic artist’s stance, which is one of compassion and involvement, is that of the detached and cynical ironist.