New Left

New Left, a broad range of left-wing activist movements and intellectual currents that arose in western Europe and North America in the late 1950s and early ’60s. Often regarded as synonymous with the student radicalism of the 1960s, which culminated in the mass protests of 1968 (most notably the events of May 1968 in France), it may also refer more narrowly to particular segments within or alongside those movements.

The diversity of sources and forms of resistance complicates attempts to identify shared features of the various currents, but among those most commonly cited are a libertarian and democratic impulse, an emphasis on cultural as well as political transformation, an extension of the traditional left’s focus on class struggle to acknowledge multiple forms and bases of oppression, including race and gender, and a rejection of bureaucracy and traditional forms of political organization in favour of direct action and participatory democracy. In theoretical terms, the New Left’s major contribution was to a process of revision and diversification within Marxism and related doctrines, especially with regard to concepts of class, agency, ideology, and culture.

New Left currents first arose in Europe in response to the perceived moral discredit of Soviet communism following Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s “secret speech” in February 1956, which revealed the extent of political repression under Joseph Stalin’s leadership. French and British groups adopted the label New Left to denote their search for a socialist “third way,” distinct both from official communism or orthodox Marxism and from mainstream social democracy. Opposition to nuclear weapons and opposition to Cold War bipolarity (a system of international relations characterized by the existence of two superpowers) were critical rallying points for the disaffected communists, independent socialists, and young radicals who formed the New Left’s constituency. Anticolonialism and the problems of the Third World were increasingly salient, especially after the Cuban revolution of 1959.

In the United States the New Left grew out of student socialist activism, especially as it intersected with, and was inspired by, the African American civil rights movement. The main U.S. New Left organization, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), was founded in 1959 and issued its political manifesto, The Port Huron Statement, in 1962. As American involvement in the Vietnam War escalated, opposition to the war, which was seen as the overarching symbol of Cold War imperialism, became the major focus of American activists and their counterparts elsewhere. New Left movements generally avoided traditional forms of political organization in favour of strategies of mass protest, direct action, and civil disobedience. The high point of New Left activism was reached in 1968 as a wave of radical protest swept across the globe. The revolutionary mood dissipated through the 1970s, although important lines of continuity remained between the New Left and new social movements such as feminism and environmentalism. A minority of activists went on to found clandestine “revolutionary” organizations practicing violent direct action; examples include the Red Army Faction (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang) in West Germany and the Weather Underground in the United States. Others moved into far-left parties and groups that proliferated in the 1970s.

The New Left produced no unified body of political theory. In many countries, including the United States, it was primarily an activist force, although in France, West Germany, and Britain theoretical production was also an important concern. The range of theoretical influences on which New Left currents drew was extremely diverse, including the philosophical existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre, various forms of revisionist or neo-Marxism, the “Third Worldism” of Frantz Fanon (a form of socialism primarily committed to the national liberation of developing countries), the Marxist structuralism of Louis Althusser, Maoism, and Trotskyism. Initially, the rediscovery of Karl Marx’s early writings, particularly on the concept of alienation, was key, serving as part of a humanist reorientation within European Marxism in which the ethical and moral dimensions of Marx’s thought were emphasized as an alternative to the economistic worldview of orthodox communism (in which economic structure directly determines social reality). The concept of alienation was influentially reworked by the Frankfurt School thinker Herbert Marcuse, whose One-Dimensional Man (1964) argued that advanced industrial capitalism had created a totalitarian society in which human needs and interests are constructed and manipulated through consumerism and the mass media so that resistance to the status quo appears irrational or impossible. Despite the pessimism of his analysis, Marcuse was sympathetic to the student movements and, along with the American sociologist C. Wright Mills—whose 1960 “Letter to the New Left ” helped to forge transatlantic connections within the milieu—inspired hope in the potential of peripheral social forces such as students, racial minorities, and Third World movements of national liberation to effect radical change. Marcuse’s work was part of a broader theoretical trend in which the agency of the working classes of advanced capitalism came to be doubted, although that issue remained controversial within the New Left.

Thinkers of the New Left also made groundbreaking contributions to the analysis of culture and communications. Departing from Marxist orthodoxy and convinced that new conditions of consumer capitalism required fresh thinking, British theorists, including Stuart Hall and Raymond Williams, conceived of culture as constitutive rather than simply reflective of social and economic processes. They published pioneering studies of the role of advertising, television, and the mass media as well as investigations of the potential of youth and other subcultures to challenge and subvert ideological messages. As it developed within and beyond the New Left, cultural studies drew on new theoretical developments, notably structuralism and poststructuralism, to become a discipline in its own right. The British journal New Left Review continued decades after its founding in 1960 to demonstrate the eclectic and experimental approach to theoretical and political questions that gave the New Left its distinctive character. Although it is a matter of contention when the New Left as a social movement came to an end, its decline is generally associated with the fractious dissolution of the SDS in 1969.