United States

The increase in the capital requirements of United States farms has already been described above. These changes in American agriculture are, to a large degree, the result of a revolution in financial management. Up to about 1930, little outside capital was needed to finance farming operations. Today, capital investment has vastly increased; farmers obtain their production goods and services—land, machines, breeding stock, seed, fertilizer, and other necessities—in a variety of ways.

Renting land is one way. In contrast to earlier days when land ownership was considered the ideal, renting land is now a widely accepted management practice. Large acreages of corn land in the Corn Belt, wheat land in the Great Plains, and cotton land in California and Arizona are operated by renters. Renting land enables farmers to operate on a much larger scale than would be possible under ownership. Specialized rice growers in the Sacramento Valley of California, who own tractors, tillage tools, and harvesters, receive rice-acreage allotments from the federal government. Such growers own no land, renting it instead from owners who have no rice allotment. Growers prepare the ground, irrigate it with water supplied by the landowner, and contract for application of seed and fertilizer. When the crop is ripe, the growers harvest the rice with their own combines and haul it to a warehouse for drying and storage. In upland areas of the valley, other growers raise tomatoes under contract from a canner, renting their land from a general crop farmer.

Farmers who do not wish to tie up capital in high-priced farm machinery can contract for harvesting of such crops as wheat, corn, grain sorghum, and barley. An airplane operator may seed, fertilize, and apply weed spray for a rice grower. Vegetables, fruit, and nuts may be picked under contract by shipper-packers whose crews move from farm to farm. Similar operations in livestock include sheepshearing, dehorning, branding, and artificial insemination.

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livestock farming: Beef cattle management

Rental of machinery is another management device farmers use to obtain the services of equipment too expensive to be owned individually. Rental of livestock also is receiving attention. In the northeastern United States dairy farmers lease cows. The owner of the cows may be a contracting firm, a local bank, or an individual investor for whom the bank serves as agent. The scheme is useful both to older farmers who wish to retire but want to retain their interest in dairying and to young dairy farmers who want to expand but have limited capital.

Soviet Union

Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, large landholdings were expropriated by the state and the land was distributed among the peasants. In 1928 collectivization of Soviet agriculture was initiated on a large scale; a three-part structure composed of state farms (sovkhoz), collective farms (kolkhoz), and private plots emerged. The state farms were owned, managed, and operated by the state. Workers on state farms were salaried employees of the state; farm managers were state appointees. During the 1960s and ’70s state farms increased sharply in numbers. Much of the increase was the result of new state farms being established in the virgin land areas and the consolidation of smaller collective farms into state farms.

The collective farm leased land from the state and was worked by members of the collective under an elected committee that, as the management unit, had the responsibility of organizing land, labour, and capital in accordance with production requirements. For years, payment to collective members consisted of their share of the collective’s produce or income from its sale. Each individual’s share was determined by a workday unit that took into account the time spent performing a job and the level of skill required for the job. In the last few decades prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union (in 1991), most collective farms had shifted to a monthly wage similar to that used by state farms.

Private plots up to two acres (0.8 hectare) in size and operated by individual workers occupied less than 3 percent of the planted area in the Soviet Union but produced nearly half the potatoes, 40 percent of the eggs, 20 percent of the meat, and 13 percent of the vegetables.

Though the Soviet farm manager’s role did not include primary decision making, there was a trend from the 1960s toward more management autonomy in farm production. The Soviet government promoted greater efficiency in agriculture by increasing the level of inputs and by improving incentives to farm labourers. These measures included financial concessions to farmers and expanded use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and drainage. The Soviet farm manager performed additional functions that in other countries are carried out by government and welfare officials, such as providing roads, recreation, education, health care, and welfare to members of the collective.

Israel

A unique feature of the management of agriculture in Israel is its cooperative settlements, which evolved as a result of the needs encountered by immigrants who were new both to their surroundings and to farming as a profession.

The two basic types of cooperative settlement are the moshav and kibbutz. A moshav is a village containing up to 150 farm family units and supported by a strong multipurpose cooperative organization. Each family is an economic and social unit, living in its own house and managing and working its own fields. Although each farm family is independent, its social and economic security is ensured by the cooperative structure of the village, whose organization markets the produce, purchases the farm and household equipment, and provides the farmer with credit and other services.

A kibbutz, numbering from 60 to 2,000 members, is a true collective based on common ownership of resources and on pooling of labour and income; it functions as a single democratic unit. Under the supervision of a manager, each member performs an assigned task but receives no salary or wages, because all the members’ needs are provided by the kibbutz.

Israel’s agriculture is highly organized into farm societies. One society, the Farmer’s Federation, has a membership of 7,000 citrus growers. There are plantation development companies and associations of wine, fruit, milk, and cotton producers.

Australia

A significant characteristic of farm management in Australia is the emphasis on production for export markets. Since the production of fine wool is the most important rural industry, grazing of sheep is a leading enterprise. Production of wheat, meat, dairy products, and fruit for export also figures large in the nation’s agricultural economy. Australian export production is highly organized through statutory marketing authorities. Ten such authorities supervise the marketing of wheat, dairy products, meat, eggs, canned fruits, dried fruits, apples and pears, wine, honey, and wool.

Getting started in almost any farming venture in Australia requires substantial amounts of capital.