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The best known of all schemes for the classification of documents in libraries is the Dewey Decimal Classification, devised by Melvil Dewey in 1873 and published in 1876. Apart from being the first modern classification scheme for libraries, the Dewey system embodies two of Dewey’s many contributions to the theory and practice of librarianship. First, he recognized that a systematic arrangement of books on shelves should make sense to the users; his scheme therefore reflected the dominant pattern of current thinking, exemplified by the “classificatory sciences.” And second, he used decimals as notation symbols, which illustrated the way in which subjects were divided hierarchically, from main classes to specific topics. An example from the schedule for chemistry shows how numbers are subdivided:
- 540 chemistry and allied sciences
- 541 physical and theoretical chemistry
- 541.2 theoretical chemistry
- 541.3 physical chemistry
- 541.34 solutions
- 541.35 photochemistry
- 542 laboratories, apparatus, equipment
Another feature of the Dewey system is the mnemonics used for certain types of subdivisions. Thus, many subjects can be subdivided geographically by the use of the historical-geographic number as decimals:
- 900 general geography and history
- 970 history of North America
- 973 history of the United States
Combining with the art schedule, the number for history of art in the United States is obtained:
- 700 the arts
- 709 history of art
- 709.73 history of art in the United States
The Dewey Decimal system and the Library of Congress system, mentioned below, are the classification schemes most frequently used in North American libraries.
The Universal Decimal system
The Universal Decimal Classification, published in 1905 and preferred by scientific and technical libraries, was an immediate offspring of the Dewey system. Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine adapted the Dewey system as the basis for a much more detailed scheme suitable for use in a vast card index of books and periodical articles in classified order—a universal bibliography of recorded knowledge. While retaining the basic generic hierarchies, the Universal Decimal Classification makes far greater use of the technique of synthesis, by providing a series of auxiliary tables for aspects of subjects likely to appear in several parts of the main schedules. These tables are indicated by the use of symbols such as punctuation marks. The colon sign (:) indicates a relationship between any parts and is the most commonly used sign. The numeral 669.1 being the notation for iron and steel and 546.22 for sulfur, the compound subject can be indicated by the notation 669.1:546.22, sulfur in iron and steel.
Like the Dewey Decimal Classification, the Universal Decimal Classification has been translated into many languages, and it is in use in many European and Asian libraries. European libraries, in particular, have emphasized classification systems over subject heading systems, basing their subject catalogs on the classification system, with an alphabetic index to class numbers. The revision of the Universal Decimal Classification has become a responsibility of the International Federation for Information and Documentation (Fédération Internationale d’Information et de Documentation; FID).
The Library of Congress system
At the turn of the 20th century Herbert Putnam, the Librarian of Congress, decided to reclassify the library but rejected the Dewey system. His staff adopted a more pragmatic approach based entirely on the way in which the books were arranged in their subjects on the shelves. They also rejected the decimal notation, preferring a purely ordinal system combining letters and numbers, leaving blank spaces where they expected new subjects to develop. (Not all of their expectations have proved correct.) American libraries and some scholarly libraries elsewhere have found the scheme attractive for its depth of detail, inasmuch as it is based on a very large library. An additional advantage is that Library of Congress notations appear on the library’s catalog cards and on computer tapes produced by the MARC project. It uses both alphabet letters and numbers for its classification codes.
The Bliss system
Although not widely used, the bibliographic classification system invented by Henry E. Bliss of the College of the City of New York (published in 1935 as A System of Bibliographic Classification) has made important contributions to the theory of classification, particularly in Bliss’s acute perception of the role of synthesis and his insistence that a library scheme should reflect the organization of knowledge and the system of the sciences. His systematic auxiliary schedules, designed to achieve what he called composite specification, carry the synthetic principle into every subject area and give a far higher degree of flexibility than does a purely enumerative scheme such as the Library of Congress system. The Bliss Classification Association, founded in the United Kingdom in 1967, promotes the use and development of the Bliss classification scheme.
The Colon system
Perhaps the most important advance in classification theory has been made by the Indian librarian S.R. Ranganathan, whose extraordinary output of books and articles has left its mark on the entire range of studies from archival science to information science. He introduced the term facet analysis to denote the technique of dividing a complex subject into its several parts by relating them to a set of five fundamental categories of abstract notions, which he called personality, energy, matter, space, and time. He employed these in his Colon Classification system (1933), which is used in some Indian libraries but has found few followers elsewhere. Nevertheless, the ideas in the scheme, expounded in his Colon Classification (1933) and Prolegomena to Library Classification (1937), have influenced all later work in classification theory and practice, including subsequent editions of the Dewey, Universal, and Bliss systems.
The Marxist system
In China a scheme has been published that departs somewhat from the Anglo-American traditions and claims to reflect the structure of knowledge according to the principles of Marxist philosophy. It has an enumerative structure and may be distinguished by its detail of analysis of, and dependence on, the corpus of Marxist literature—a literature that, in Anglo-American schemes, usually occupies a relatively minor place.
Preservation
One model of library service is that collections are used so extensively that the materials disintegrate from heavy use. Librarians who espouse this ideal maintain that libraries are for use and that any materials not in active use should be removed from the collection, a process known as weeding. A competing model holds that much of the world’s great literature is available to be read chiefly because libraries of the past preserved that literature. This model encourages the preservation of materials so that the intellectual and cultural heritage received and created by the current generation can be transmitted to future generations.
Libraries most active in the area of preservation are usually large research libraries, which have the largest collections and perhaps the greatest concern for future users. On the whole most libraries try to strike a balance between maximizing current use and preserving materials for future use. In recent decades, the move toward preservation of library materials has been given additional impetus by the discovery that much 19th- and 20th-century paper retains acid introduced in the manufacturing process and that this acid, combined with the effects of air pollution, is causing many books to disintegrate as they sit on library shelves.
Reformatting
In response to this problem, libraries have developed several preservation strategies. The most important method of preserving library materials has been reformatting. Brittle and crumbling books and photographs are preserved by photographing them on microfilm or, in some cases, by using scanners to create digital images on magnetic or optical disc. These less vulnerable formats can then be preserved in archives. Reformatting also enables the inclusion of library materials in other media, such as multimedia information services. The drawback of this process, of course, is the issue of technological obsolescence. If reformatting relies on technology that becomes obsolete, the preservation effort is seriously compromised. The task of reformatting all materials that used acidic paper, nitrate films, or other degradable materials is monumental, generally requiring cooperation between many libraries and a substantial infusion of government funds.
Deacidification
In certain cases, reformatting is not the best solution to the problem of disintegration. The original material may have intrinsic value as an artifact, or it may lose some of its information in the reformatting process. In such cases, paper materials are deacidified by one of a number of chemical processes, some of which can also strengthen paper that has already been weakened. Mass deacidification of paper is an increasingly important part of preservation.
Future-conscious manufacturing
The most sensible solution to the preservation of books and journals for future use is the adoption of nonacidic paper by publishers. Many paper plants have begun to make a nonacidic paper that, with good care, will last for centuries rather than decades. Use of this product for book production will obviate the crumbling away of centuries of intellectual and cultural activity.