Gender Diversity Across History And Culture
Chiu Lau (she, her)
Clinical Psychology Registrar | Founder of Possibilities Psychological Services
By Carol Saldanha for Possibilities Psychological Services
Published on Linkedin: 12.22pm AEST, 30/07/2024
A look into gender diversity across history and culture
While the conversation around gender diversity may seem new to many, the concept is far from it. Throughout history, the world has been more than just a binary of males and females, a fact that may come as a revelation to some.
Diverse SOGIE (sexual orientation, gender identity, and expression) have existed across the world for centuries. Many cultures recognised, respected, and celebrated this diversity long before colonisation.
The difference between sex, sexual orientation and gender
What is sex
Sex refers to our biological sex – it describes our genitals and level of hormones. Based on those, we are assigned a sex – male or female – on our birth certificates.
What is sexual orientation
Sexual orientation, or sexuality, refers to who we are attracted to romantically and sexually. Our sexuality is part of our identity. Terms (or labels) frequently associated with our sexuality are gay, lesbian, bisexual, asexual, straight and so on [1].
What is gender
Gender is an identity and is typically based on society's views. It can be different in different places and change over time. Gender expression is how a person shows their gender to others. This includes their appearance, such as clothing, hairstyle, and makeup, and behaviour, such as body language and voice. Gender identity is a spectrum and goes beyond binary (male and female) definitions [2]. This understanding is crucial in appreciating the diversity of human experiences. Many people whose gender identity do not match the sex they were assigned at birth may experience gender dysphoria.
Gender dysphoria is a feeling of mismatch between one's internal sense of self and how one's body appears or how others perceive them. Chiu Lau, psychologist and founder of Possibilities Psychological Services says “Not every trans or gender diverse folk will experience gender dysphoria. However, for those experiencing distress relating to gender incongruence or challenges associated with minority stress, it can be beneficial to receive support from a psychologist experienced with providing gender-affirming care.” And if you think the conversation about gender diversity and gender identity is "a fad" or "something from TikTok," think again. We've mapped out some examples of gender diversity in cultures on all continents.
Map of gender diversity in the world
Asia
Asian cultures view gender and sexuality differently from Euro-centric cultures. Cultural and religious beliefs can shape identities rather than individual choices, for example, the Hijra community in the Indian subcontinent. In some Asian cultures, gender identity is not strictly binary. Instead, it allows for a fluidity that Western definitions may not fully capture. This fluidity means that some individuals may not strictly align with the male or female gender and may instead occupy unique roles within their spiritual and religious practices [3].
Indonesia and the Bissu shaman
The Bugis people of Indonesia recognise a gender identity known as 'bissu’. The bissu are considered to be half-man, half-woman shamans, and are believed to be the source of spiritual powers due to their body duality. This unique identity allows them to act as intermediaries between the earthly and spiritual realms, granting them the power to heal and commune with deities [4].
Africa
Traditional roles for transgender women and men have existed in many African societies. For centuries, many African countries had different views on sexual and gender identities than their European colonisers. They did not see gender as only male or female, and they did not connect anatomy to gender identity. There is no record of punishment for individuals because of their sexual orientation before European colonisation in Africa [5].
Madagascar and the 'sekrata' third gender
Among the Antandroy and Hova, two clan-like subgroups of the Sakalava in Madagascar, children assigned male at birth but recognised as feminine are raised as girls. Known as sekrata, they dress like women, style their hair in decorative knots (typically female), insert silver coins in pierced ears, and wear numerous bracelets on their arms, wrists, and ankles. As a third gender, sekrata are not typically considered transgender and usually do not seek gender-affirming medical intervention. Similar to many other third-gender individuals in Indigenous societies, sekrata have a social role tied to their spiritual status and are revered for it. They may perform as dancers and entertainers [6].
Americas
Before colonisation, many Indigenous people in the Americas recognised a third gender or transgender individuals. US Oscar nominee actor Lily Gladstone is of Piegan Blackfeet and Nez Perce Indigenous heritage of North America and identifies as “middle-gendered” [1]. She also says that in most Indigenous native languages, Blackfeet included, there are no gendered pronouns [2].
The Diné (Navajo) and the gender spectrum
The Diné (Navajo) have the nádleehi, a social and, at times, ceremonial role in their culture. Nádleehi are male-bodied people with a feminine nature. The Diné people have a rich understanding of gender beyond the binary. They recognise a spectrum with four categories: feminine and masculine versions of both men and women.
Nádleehi individuals can be fluid in their gender expression, fulfilling roles traditionally associated with either men or women. They may even hold special positions requiring a balanced gender identity. While some contemporary nádleehi identify with the broader LGBTQIA+ community, it's not universal [7].
The trans identity in pre-colonised Brazil
There are reports of transmasculine and transfeminine identities among the indigenous population in South America in the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in Brazil. Transmasculine people lived as men, took wives, and were offended if they were referred to and treated as women. Conversely, some transfeminine Indigenous people were treated as women and performed women-assigned roles in their society despite being biologically male [8].
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Europe
Some medieval European documents have been studied as possible accounts of transgender persons.
Spain
There are records of many people in 16th-century Spain who were raised as girls but eventually adopted male identities under many circumstances [9]. A infamous one was Antonio de Erauso (born Catalina de Erauso) [1]. Also known by other masculine names, de Euraso was an unwilling nun who escaped and traveled around Spain and Spanish America as a man [10].
Roman Britain
Pride of Place identified the earliest LGBTQ+ location as Cataractonium, now known as Catterick in North Yorkshire. Archaeologists uncovered the grave of a 4th-century AD gallus there. Born male, a gallus became a priestess of the goddess Cybele through self-castration, cross-dressing, and adopting a woman's role to demonstrate commitment to Cybele. The Cataractonium gallus was buried with jet jewelry and other female accessories, indicating a priestess's status. This social and cultural role highlights the gender diversity that existed in Roman Britain [11].
Colonisation and the change to a heteronormative binary world
Today, 14 countries have laws that specifically make it illegal for transgender people to express their gender identity, often by targeting 'cross-dressing,' 'impersonation,' or using 'disguise laws.' Transgender people are frequently criminalised through laws against same-sex conduct, 'cross-dressing,' vagrancy, and minor offences. Many of these laws have origins in colonial times [12].
Colonisers often claimed they needed to 'correct,' 'modernise,' and 'civilise' various gender and sexual practices in different cultures, which they saw as 'sexual perversion' and signs of 'backwardness' and 'savagery.' The introduction of heteronormativity and strict gender roles by colonial powers through laws, policing, medicine, literature, and education aimed to control 'sexual perversion' and contrast it with European gender and sexual norms [13].
The effects of colonisation have greatly influenced current views on gender and sexual orientation. Sadly, this has resulted in transphobic and homophobic attitudes. LGBTQIA+ community – a concept itself that stems from colonisation – continues to face discrimination, disproportionate violence, and legal persecution worldwide.
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Chiu Lau is a Psychologist at Possibilities Psychological Services, an Australia-wide online therapy provider. Since 2003, she has developed expertise in the management of mental health, autism & related neurodevelopmental differences, learning & intellectual disabilities, rare genetic conditions, carer & sibling mental health support, and gender questioning & gender diverse presentations.
Recognising the challenges associated with navigating various intervention and mental health provider options, Chiu invites you to book a complimentary 20-minute chat to explore your options and possibilities here.